Problems in Defining Poverty

Problems in Defining Poverty Title: Relief of poverty is widely perceived to be the central aim of the social security system. With poverty itself being such a complex phenomenon, it is hardly surprising that differing approaches have been adopted to its definition and measurement. (Neville Harris: Social Security and Society in Harris: Social Security Law in Context p.41) Discuss. Introduction Poverty is indeed a complex concept and phenomenon, and its definition is the subject of considerable academic and social polemic. It is certainly true that there is  no single, universally accepted definition of poverty. In point of fact multifarious definitions of poverty are available in the United Kingdom and from many multilateral and international organisations. One relatively uncontroversial observation that can be made is that modern definitions of poverty have evolved away from conceptions grounded on a paucity of the physical necessities of life and concentrate more on relative and social notions of the state. The Definition of Measurement of Poverty: Competing Perspectives Given the United Kingdom’s membership of the European Union and the sovereignty of EU law among its 25 Member States comprising around 460 million citizens it is submitted that as good a place as any to start is the EU definition of poverty. Throughout the 1990s the definition endorsed by the EU was: â€Å"an income of less than half the EU average†[1] This figure was  £150 a week in 1993, and by this objective definition, around 50 million citizens were deemed to be living in poverty in the EU in 1993. However, in recent years the EU has expanded to embrace a number of central and eastern European states which are significantly poorer than its more established western European Member States and partly as a consequence the EU definition of poverty has changed to the following: ‘Persons, families and groups of persons whose resources (material, cultural and social) are so limited as to exclude them from the minimum acceptable way of life in the Member State to which they belong’.[2] This is clearly a more relative measure of poverty, acknowledging that poverty should not merely be measured on financial criteria but that the practical exclusion of those individuals and groups living in poverty from normal patterns of living, activities and customs should also be taken into account. There is therefore an important distinction between absolute and relative concepts of poverty. Absolute poverty relates to a state in which individuals do not possess the items necessary for the sustenance of life, including shelter, clothing and food. In work published at the turn of the last century Rowntree stipulated that a so-called â€Å"poverty line† should be set on the basis of minimum needs.[3] Whereas in 1995 the United Nations Copenhagen Declaration[4] defined absolute poverty in the following terms: â€Å"a condition characterised by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to social services. On the other hand, relative poverty is typically defined as the inability of an individual to engage and participate fully in cultural social and economic terms in the society in which they live. In simple terms relative poverty is therefore based on a comparison between poor individuals and other more fortunate members of society. Townsend has adopted this definition of poverty, stating that it constitutes: the absence or inadequacy of those diets, amenities, standards, services and activities which are common or customary in society.[5] In the United Kingdom poverty is measured in a variety of different ways and by different programmes.. These include: the National Plan on Social Exclusion[6], which was implemented after agreement at the 2000 Lisbon summit of the European Council to address poverty and social exclusion; the Households Below Average Income[7] statistical analysis, which applies a threshold of 60% of median income as a proxy to draw the poverty line; and the Opportunity For All[8] monitoring and review programme, which concentrates on assessing progress towards a fairer and more inclusive society. The United Kingdom Department of Work and Pensions[9] is engaged in an ongoing review of the formula and strategy it employs to measure income poverty. The current thinking is that the best approach would be a tripartite assessment centred on absolute low income, relative low income and material deprivation and low income combined.[10] A great many commentators in the field of sociology have criticised the notion of an absolute definition of poverty.[11] It has been argued that to adopt a general or global definition would be to fail to take account of the crucial socio-economic differentials that distinguish local communities, regions, and nation states. It is submitted that there is little doubt that relative definitions of poverty are now supported by the majority of sociologists.. Two arguments are typically invoked to support this line. First, it is contended that poverty is not a fixed concept but one that can only be properly comprehended and defined in the general socio-economic environment of the particular society in which individuals live. This means that an individual will be classed as in poverty by reference only to the living standards of those around him or her. However, this may be a pregnable position, given that by implication the â€Å"poor† in any given society may be defined by the â€Å"rich† and this may result in anomalies. It may be incongruous or inappropriate (in particular in the context of global poverty) to contend that a family that does not possess two cars, a DVD player, satellite TV and a computer with internet access should necessarily be defined as â€Å"in poverty† merely because those possessions are norms within the favoured society in question. Second, relative poverty is deemed an appropriate measure because individual societies possess a distinct and unique set of cultural norms and values. Arguably this contention is stronger because it seems appropriate that any definition poverty should take account of the sets of expectations, freedoms and choices that individuals have in the society of which they are a member. Cultural aspects of relative poverty focus on the ideal that all members of a society should be capable of sharing in the goods and services available and fundamental to that society and both engaging with and fully participating in the salient institutions of that society. On this basis, whereas the lack of a telephone might not be seen as putting an Ethiopian family into poverty, an old age pensioner living by herself in the United Kingdom might be deemed to be living in poverty if she does not possess such an instrument which is fundamental to life in our society. In the influential and authoritative study Poverty in the United Kingdom, Townsend argued: â€Å"Poverty can be defined objectively and applied consistently only in terms of the concept of relative deprivation†¦ Individuals, families and groups in the  population can be said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the type of diet, participate in the activities and have the living conditions and  amenities which are customary, or at least widely encouraged or approved, in the societies to which they belong. Their resources are so seriously below those commanded by the average individual or family that they are, in effect, excluded from ordinary living patterns, customs or activities.†[12] It appears therefore that the relativist approach is in the ascendancy, although this means that there can be no such thing as a clear poverty line, but rather a series of lines drawn in different contexts for different reasons. Concluding Comments In conclusion it is submitted that poverty, however it is ultimately defined or measured, is an inevitable by-product of the capitalist society in which we live, and which now proliferates in the Western World. Capitalism depends on a division between â€Å"haves† and â€Å"have nots† and however poverty is measured or defined it is most unlikely that it will ever be eradicated, given that the profit-motive which drives the commercial motor of society is dependent on its existence as a baseline for endeavour. In particular, if a relative concept of poverty because entrenched and sovereign, we will never rid ourselves of the state, because some faction of society will always be disadvantaged in comparison to the most favoured. The first part of the title to this work states that: â€Å"Relief of poverty is widely perceived to be the central aim of the social security system†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . This is probably true but the relief offered is largely analgesic only, providing basic painkilling for the symptoms of poverty but not directly addressing the root causes of poverty itself. The second part of the title to this work states: â€Å"With poverty itself being such a complex phenomenon, it is hardly surprising that differing approaches have been adopted to its definition and measurement. This is also true and can be explained by the fact that so many different agencies and policies, regional, national and international, are directed at tackling poverty for different reasons, from different perspectives and with different objectives..[13] Given the vast disparity that exists within society on a global but even on the national stage, it is hard to envisage a workable all-encompassing definition of poverty that would do justice to every context and every disadvantaged individual.. Consequently, it is likely and probably desirable that multiple definitions of poverty will continue to co-exist for the foreseeable future. BIBLIOGRAPHY Tiscali Reference Encyclopaedia: http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0021818.html Rowntree BS, â€Å"Poverty: A Study of Town Life†, (1901) Longman. United Nations, 1995, The Copenhagen Declaration and Programme of Action, UN. Townsend P., Poverty in the United Kingdom, (1979) Penguin. Department of Work and Pensions, National Plan on Social Exclusion: http://www.dwp..gov.uk/publications/dwp/2003/nap/ Department of Work and Pensions, Households Below Average Income: http://www.dwp..gov.uk/asd/hbai.asp Department of Work and Pensions, Opportunity For All: http://www.dwp.gov.uk/ofa/ Veit-Wilson, J (1987), Consensual Approaches to Poverty Lines and Social Security, Journal of Social Policy, 16(2), pp.183-211 Muffels, R, Berghman J and Dirven, H (1992), A Multi-Method Approach to Monitor the Evolution of Poverty, Journal of European Social Policy, 2(3), pp.193-213. 1 [1] http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0021818.html. [2] See: http://www.childreninwales.org.uk/2157.html. [3] Rowntree BS, â€Å"Poverty: A Study of Town Life†, (1901) Longman. [4] United Nations, 1995, The Copenhagen Declaration and Programme of Action, UN. [5] Townsend P., Poverty in the United Kingdom, (1979) Penguin. [6] See: http://www.dwp.gov.uk/publications/dwp/2003/nap/ [7] See: http://www.dwp.gov.uk/asd/hbai.asp. [8] See: http://www.dwp.gov.uk/ofa/. [9] See: http://www.dwp.gov.uk/. [10] It is proposed that each of the measurements should be on a before housing cost basis. [11] See inter alia: Veit-Wilson, J (1987), Consensual Approaches to Poverty Lines and Social Security. Journal of Social Policy, 16(2), pp.183-211. [12] Townsend P., Poverty in the United Kingdom, 1979, p31 [13] See for an insightful commentary and analysis: Muffels, R, Berghman J and Dirven, H (1992), A Multi-Method Approach to Monitor the Evolution of Poverty, Journal of European Social Policy, 2(3), pp.193-213.

No Mo Accidents :: essays research papers

No More Accidents Bike helmet safety is a big problem in our society. People do not realize that a bike helmet to a biker is the same as a seat belt to a motorist. We as bikers need all the protection that we can get since we don’t have the tank-like protection of a ’88 Ford Tempo. So now I am going to tell you a story of a personal experience, the basics to a helmet and some statistics Even though bike helmets are designed to lessen the impact in one particular spot and disperse the force throughout the helmet. The helmet however is not the most safest thing to but in our society. Most manufactures today tend to make helmets that have a lot of holes and are made for fashion instead of for being a good helmet. The plastic coating on most helmets is there to prevent less friction when you are sliding down on your head. The air holes on the helmet provide better air flow and a fresh new style but they lessen the fact of the force upon impact will have less of a space to disperse the force into. Do not get me wrong all the bicycle helmets on the market pass at least the minimum of the standard. In Austrailia the market had to lower the standard of their helmets because they were soo expensive, so that people would buy their helmets. Being in a bike accident is a very tramatizing thing to go through. I went through several accidents, but one accident in particular knocked some sense into me about helmet safety. One summer morning I woke up like every other day. I did all the normal things one would do in the morning like taking a shower, eating breakfast and getting dressed. After I got myself all set up to go out for the day, I called up one of my friends to go do something. It was another one of San Francisco’s beautiful weather days so we decided to go bicycle riding and to play some basketball. So, then I start to head out of my house to get my bicycle ready for departure about 10am. Now I am on my way to my friends’ house. The first half of my ride was pretty basic, all it was just a nice cruise down hill. The second part however was not so much difficult as I just had to keep my eyes on the path. No Mo Accidents :: essays research papers No More Accidents Bike helmet safety is a big problem in our society. People do not realize that a bike helmet to a biker is the same as a seat belt to a motorist. We as bikers need all the protection that we can get since we don’t have the tank-like protection of a ’88 Ford Tempo. So now I am going to tell you a story of a personal experience, the basics to a helmet and some statistics Even though bike helmets are designed to lessen the impact in one particular spot and disperse the force throughout the helmet. The helmet however is not the most safest thing to but in our society. Most manufactures today tend to make helmets that have a lot of holes and are made for fashion instead of for being a good helmet. The plastic coating on most helmets is there to prevent less friction when you are sliding down on your head. The air holes on the helmet provide better air flow and a fresh new style but they lessen the fact of the force upon impact will have less of a space to disperse the force into. Do not get me wrong all the bicycle helmets on the market pass at least the minimum of the standard. In Austrailia the market had to lower the standard of their helmets because they were soo expensive, so that people would buy their helmets. Being in a bike accident is a very tramatizing thing to go through. I went through several accidents, but one accident in particular knocked some sense into me about helmet safety. One summer morning I woke up like every other day. I did all the normal things one would do in the morning like taking a shower, eating breakfast and getting dressed. After I got myself all set up to go out for the day, I called up one of my friends to go do something. It was another one of San Francisco’s beautiful weather days so we decided to go bicycle riding and to play some basketball. So, then I start to head out of my house to get my bicycle ready for departure about 10am. Now I am on my way to my friends’ house. The first half of my ride was pretty basic, all it was just a nice cruise down hill. The second part however was not so much difficult as I just had to keep my eyes on the path.

How Will Technology Influence Our Lives in Future Essay

Since times immemorial, scientists have invented thousands of technologies. Among them, television, wheel, mobile phone and computer have been of utmost benefit to us and have left a considerable impact on us. These have entirely revolutionized communication techniques, travelling ways and other aspects of human life. Today, our lives are much more cozier and technical compared to those in primitive times. Before speaking about the future, let us recount the various innovative technological wonders of the past which has made our lives today so comfortable. As mentioned above, the wheel is considered to be the greatest invention till date. Why? Can it even be considered as technology? The answer is definitely yes. Simply defined, technology is a man’s creation which can be implemented to make tasks easier. Imagine a world today without wheels! No cars and bikes to zap us around places, no conveyer belts in factories(resulting in heavy manual labour). Even to draw water out of the wells in some of our houses (we use pulleys which is derived from the wheel) would be a herculean task. Hard to imagine right? Communication technology is another major technological boon (bane in a very few ways). Remember the time of our ancestors where delivery of letters would take weeks, months even! Or before that, where messengers would travel on foot to convey messages. And now, where at the press of a button, any person in this whole wide world can be contacted. In a jiffy! Ok moving on. The world is so much advanced in technology as it is. Is there scope for more advancement in future? Of course there is! There is virtually no limit to advancement. So, what does the future hold for us in the technological aspect? I dare say anything because as I said, there is virtually no bounds within which technology can constrict itself. Already we have so many technological contraptions that are a blessing to people. The bionic limbs which make the handicapped as able as normal people. The time is not far where artificial life can be created. Robots helping the blind see, helping the lame to walk is not going to be just fiction in a few decades from now. Internet will find even larger application in future. I see advancement in our economical & social life. It’s reasonable to assume that as technology continues to accelerate, we can expect dramatic changes in the years and decades ahead. Most of us have come to take rapid technological improvement in the products and services we use for granted. But when technology has a broader impact on society and on the economy. In next 5-10 year there will be a big change in our earning style; where e-business will be a major part of our jobs. People will be earning 30-100% of their income from internet. These are not my statistics but from trusted sources from the economists from leading institutes. Saying this, it is apparent that technological advancement has become a boon to us. Or, HAS IT Is there a flip side to this that can affect us in an undesirable way? If you ask me, technology is a teo-edged sword to a certain extent. It has its cons. There are so many crimes happening these days. Some on such a large scale which is difficult to imagine. Technology has played a role in this aspect too. Internet crimes are increasing at an alarming rate. Burglars are making use of high-tech tools to break in, bank accounts are being hacked, people are being deceived online and the list goes on. This precisely is where the line should be drawn when it comes to technology. We should use it properly and with good intentions. For the good of the people. The â€Å"virtually no end† phrase holds good here also. When, at present times there is such misuse of technology, imagine what would happen in the future if not used properly? So there are no limits for the cons of technology also. Coming to â€Å"what should India do to stay ahead†. India has a low GDP and is not a world leader in terms of technology (though it is certainly up there). To get decent degrees, its students abroad where the degrees are reputable and valuable. To get to the top, I think there is a valuable lesson which can be learned from a region within our own country; Kerala. The GDP of Kerala is six times the national average, so they’re clearly doing something right. In Kerala, they encourage the education of women and offer better free healthcare and family planning. To improve their situation, India should probably reproduce this model across the country. Of course, there are other ways in which they could increase their GDP/capita, but this is probably the most appropriate. You’re probably wondering what that has to do with technology. I believe that if the GDP/capita increases sufficiently, there will be more interest in high-tech industry and consequently there will be more technological progress in India. This will inspire few of the players in the technology field from India to strive to be better than the other. The direct result of this will be India climbing two more rungs of the tech ladder. India should also improve the standards of the technical education being imparted in ALL INSTITUTES. Not only the IIT’s, NIT’s and IISc’s. The base for technical should be standardised. The students should be convinced that the education they will get in india is on par with foreign universities wth a high reputation. The budding engineers should be lured to work in india for the betterment of the country rather than loosing them to foreign lands. These are only few ways in which india can try and be ahead in the game. Much more simpler things like appreciation for the innovative minds that are working on technolgy can work wonders. Not only the government, but every citizen of india has a fair portion to contribute in helping india to be the world leader in technology. So lets do our bit.

Essay about The Positive and Negative Effects of Dna...

The Positive And Negative Effects of DNA Profiling Justin Broyles Apr. 12, 1995 Justice Theory Lance Miller Genetic engineering has developed and blossomed at a frightening rate in the last decade. Originating as merely an area of interest for scientists, genetic engineering has now become an area of which all people should be somewhat knowledgeable. DNA profiling has many uses, both positive and negative, in our society. Aside from its usefulness in many legal investigations, DNA profiling can be used in the workplace to discriminate against employees whose profiles could pose a financial risk. For example, genetic technology can and has been used to determine the capacity of a person to contract certain diseases, such as†¦show more content†¦Supposedly, the use of numerical codes will allow huge databases to search for a match of a individual DNA band. However, these matches are not 100 percent. This inconclusive correlation between DNA patterns has led to a heated debate which has culminated in federal court with Daubert vs. Merrel Dow Pharmaceuticals Inc. The ruling in the Daubert case said that the acceptance by the scientific community is not enough by itself to allow certain scientific techniques into court as evidence, especially given the reality that a suspects entire future could hang in the balance of a scientific finding. Many people have argued that the use of a national DNA database infringes on the individuals constitutional rights to privacy. However, law officials have claimed that the advantages this database presents for society supercede the individuals rights. This dilemma can easily be associated to the social contract presented by Thomas Hobbes. In this contract, Hobbes believed that each individual should give up certain individual rights in order to achieve protection from the whole. 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